Period 7 (1890-1945) explores America’s transformation into a global power, covering imperialism, World Wars, the Progressive Era, the Roaring Twenties, and the Great Depression’s impact.
Overview of Period 7 (1890-1945)
Period 7 spans from 1890 to 1945, marking the United States’ rise as a global superpower. This era saw significant events like the Spanish-American War, World War I, the Roaring Twenties, the Great Depression, and World War II. It also highlights domestic transformations, including the Progressive Era’s reforms, the Harlem Renaissance, and the New Deal. The period underscores America’s shift from isolationism to international engagement, as well as its economic and cultural evolution, setting the stage for its emergence as a dominant world power after 1945.
Key Themes and Concepts
Key themes in Period 7 include U.S. expansion and imperialism, the Progressive Era’s reforms, economic instability, and the impact of two World Wars. The Open Door Policy and the Panama Canal highlight America’s growing global influence. Domestically, the rise of industrialization and urbanization spurred movements like women’s suffrage and Prohibition. The Great Depression and the New Deal reshaped the federal government’s role, while cultural shifts like the Harlem Renaissance and technological advancements defined the era. These developments underscore America’s transformation into a global superpower by 1945.
Imperialism and Global Expansion
U.S. imperialism expanded through the Spanish-American War, Open Door Policy, and Panama Canal, showcasing America’s growing global influence and economic ambitions during this period.
The Spanish-American War and Its Aftermath
The Spanish-American War (1898) stemmed from Cuba’s struggle for independence and U.S. economic interests. The Treaty of Paris ended the war, granting the U.S. control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines for $20 million. This marked the emergence of the U.S. as a global power, sparking debates over imperialism. The Open Door Policy, introduced by Secretary of State John Hay, aimed to ensure equal trade opportunities in China, reflecting U.S. ambitions in Asia. The Boxer Rebellion further solidified U.S. involvement in global affairs, while the Mexican Revolution drew American attention to regional stability.
The Open Door Policy and U.S. Involvement in China
The Open Door Policy, introduced by Secretary of State John Hay in 1899, aimed to ensure equal trade opportunities for all nations in China. While the U.S. claimed to support China’s territorial integrity, its primary goal was to expand American trade interests. The policy was reluctantly accepted by major powers but faced challenges during the Boxer Rebellion. The U.S. participated in a multinational force to rescue foreigners, demonstrating its growing influence in Asia. This policy highlighted America’s shift from isolationism to global engagement, particularly in regions with economic potential like China.
The Panama Canal and Its Significance
The Panama Canal, completed in 1914 under President Roosevelt, revolutionized global trade by connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. This shortcut reduced travel time and costs for ships, enhancing U.S. trade and naval capabilities. The canal solidified America’s geopolitical influence, facilitating easier access to Asian markets and strengthening its role as a global power. It also showcased U.S. engineering prowess and marked a pivotal moment in the nation’s expansionist policies during the early 20th century, further establishing its dominance in international commerce and diplomacy.
The Progressive Era
The Progressive Era (1890-1920) was a period of reform addressing industrialization’s social and economic challenges. Middle-class activists targeted corruption, trusts, and inequality, advocating for government regulation and social change.
Domestic Reforms and the Middle-Class Response
Domestic reforms during the Progressive Era focused on addressing the social and economic challenges of industrialization. Middle-class activists pushed for urban reforms, political corruption, and social inequality. The 19th Amendment granted women suffrage, while efforts like trust-busting aimed to regulate industries. Progressive reforms also targeted workplace conditions, child labor, and public health. Education and public welfare initiatives gained traction, reflecting a growing belief in government’s role to improve society. These reforms highlighted a shift toward greater federal involvement in addressing domestic issues.
Economic Policies: Trust Busting and the Federal Reserve System
President Roosevelt’s trust-busting policies targeted “bad trusts” that hindered competition, using the Sherman Antitrust Act to promote economic fairness. The Federal Reserve System, established in 1913, created a central banking structure to stabilize the financial system, balancing private and public control. These reforms aimed to regulate industrial power and ensure economic stability, addressing concerns about unchecked capitalism and financial crises.
Social Movements: Women’s Suffrage and Prohibition
The Progressive Era saw significant social change, including the women’s suffrage movement, which culminated in the 19th Amendment granting women the right to vote in 1920. The Prohibition movement, fueled by moral and anti-German sentiment during WWI, led to the 18th Amendment banning alcohol production and sales. These movements reflected broader societal shifts toward reform and cultural change, addressing gender equality and public morality.
World War I
World War I (1914-1918) transformed the U.S. into a global power, sparking debates over international involvement and leading to domestic reforms and the Red Scare.
Causes of World War I: Nationalism, Imperialism, and Militarism
Nationalism, imperialism, and militarism were central causes of World War I. Nationalism fueled intense loyalty to one’s nation, leading to heightened tensions. Imperialism drove competition for colonies and resources, while militarism glorified military strength, creating an atmosphere of aggression. The complex system of alliances further escalated tensions, as smaller conflicts risked drawing in larger powers. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand ignited these underlying tensions, plunging Europe into war. These factors intertwined to create a volatile environment where war became almost inevitable.
American Involvement: From Neutrality to War
The U.S. initially maintained neutrality in World War I, avoiding direct involvement while economically supporting the Allies. However, Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare and the sinking of the Lusitania heightened tensions. The Zimmermann Telegram, revealing Germany’s plan to ally with Mexico against the U.S., further pushed America toward war. President Wilson, despite his “peace without victory” stance, eventually requested a declaration of war in April 1917, citing the need to protect democracy and American interests. This marked the U;S.’s shift from neutrality to active participation in the global conflict;
The Home Front: Espionage Acts and the Red Scare
During World War I, the U.S. government passed the Espionage and Sedition Acts to suppress dissent. These laws criminalized interference with the draft, disloyal speech, and opposition to the war effort. The Sedition Act of 1918 further restricted free speech, targeting criticism of the government or the war. This era also saw the Red Scare, a widespread fear of communism and radicalism. The government and public targeted suspected radicals, immigrants, and labor leaders, often violating civil liberties. These actions reflected a broader climate of nationalism and intolerance during the war years.
The Roaring Twenties
The 1920s saw cultural innovation, technological advancements, and social change, marked by mass production, consumer culture, and the Harlem Renaissance, shaping modern American identity and economy.
Cultural and Technological Innovations
The 1920s witnessed transformative cultural and technological advancements. Henry Ford’s assembly line revolutionized manufacturing, making cars like the Model T affordable for the middle class. Mass production drove consumer culture, while advertising evolved through psychology and subconscious appeal. Movies became a staple, with The Jazz Singer (1927) pioneering sound in films. These innovations reshaped American life, fostering modernity and accessibility.
Technological progress and cultural shifts defined the era, laying the groundwork for a more interconnected and consumer-driven society. These changes had lasting impacts on American identity and economic growth.
Political Controversies: Nativism and Immigration
The 1920s saw a surge in nativist sentiment, fueled by a wave of immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe. Many Americans viewed these newcomers as threats to cultural homogeneity. The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1924 severely restricted immigration, reflecting anti-immigrant attitudes. These laws prioritized immigrants from Northern and Western Europe, perpetuating racial and ethnic biases. Additionally, events like the Sacco and Vanzetti trial highlighted tensions between immigrants and native-born Americans, while anti-German sentiment during World War I further fueled nativism. These controversies underscored the era’s growing divisions over identity and belonging.
The Harlem Renaissance and Social Change
The Harlem Renaissance flourished in the 1920s, marking a cultural and intellectual awakening among African Americans. Centered in New York City, it celebrated black identity through art, literature, and music. Figures like Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Duke Ellington challenged racial stereotypes and fostered pride in African American heritage. This movement also addressed social inequalities and inspired political activism, contributing to the broader struggle for civil rights. Its legacy remains a powerful symbol of cultural resistance and transformation during a period of significant social change in America.
The Great Depression and the New Deal
The Great Depression and the New Deal marked a pivotal shift in U.S. history, as the federal government assumed a more active role in addressing economic and social crises.
The Causes and Impact of the Great Depression
The Great Depression, triggered by the 1929 stock market crash, was exacerbated by bank failures and a collapse in consumer spending. Mass unemployment, peaking at 25%, devastated families and industries. Agricultural prices plummeted, worsening poverty, while global trade declined sharply due to protectionist policies like the Smoot-Hawley Tariff. The crisis deepened social inequality and homelessness, fostering widespread despair and political upheaval. Its impact reshaped economic policies and set the stage for federal intervention in the economy.
Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal Programs
FDR’s New Deal aimed to provide relief, recovery, and reform during the Great Depression. Programs like the Works Progress Administration and Civilian Conservation Corps created jobs, while the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation restored banking confidence. The National Recovery Administration and Agricultural Adjustment Administration addressed industrial and agricultural stabilization. These measures helped alleviate suffering, stimulate recovery, and reform the financial system, setting a new precedent for federal intervention in economic crises.
Reforms and Relief: A New Role for the Federal Government
The New Deal significantly expanded federal authority, introducing reforms that redefined government responsibility. Programs like Social Security established a safety net for vulnerable populations, while the Securities and Exchange Commission regulated financial markets to prevent future crises. Federal agencies were created to oversee economic activities, and infrastructure projects modernized the nation. This shift marked a departure from laissez-faire policies, establishing a more active role for the government in addressing social and economic challenges, which became a lasting legacy of the era.
World War II
World War II transformed the U.S. into a global superpower, with significant events like Pearl Harbor, D-Day, and the atomic bombings shaping its trajectory and legacy.
The United States and the Road to War
The U.S. initially maintained neutrality during World War II, focusing on economic recovery from the Great Depression. However, Axis aggression in Europe and Asia, particularly Germany’s expansion, Italy’s conquests, and Japan’s invasion of China, raised concerns. The attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 propelled the U.S. into the conflict. Prior to the war, the U.S. supported Allied nations through the Lend-Lease Act and economic mobilization, setting the stage for its eventual entry into the global conflict.
The Home Front During World War II
During World War II, the U.S. home front experienced significant changes. Women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers, particularly in defense industries, while rationing and patriotism became central to daily life. The federal government played a key role in coordinating the economy, with agencies managing resource allocation and production. The Great Migration of African Americans to urban centers accelerated, seeking wartime jobs. Despite challenges, the home front contributed significantly to the war effort, fostering a sense of national unity and economic mobilization.
The Aftermath of the War and the Emergence of the United States as a Superpower
The end of World War II marked the U.S. as a dominant global power. Economically, the nation emerged unscathed, while much of the world lay in ruins. This positioned the U.S. as a superpower alongside the Soviet Union, setting the stage for the Cold War. The Bretton Woods system and the United Nations reflected America’s leadership role. The war’s conclusion solidified the U.S.’s influence, reshaping international relations and cementing its status as a global leader.